A History of Ancient Greek Physics

A History of Ancient Greek Physics In ancient times, the systematic study of fundamental natural laws was not a huge concern. The concern was staying alive. Science, as it existed at that time, consisted primarily of agriculture and, eventually, engineering to improve the daily lives of the growing societies. The sailing of a ship, for example, utilizes air drag, the same principle that keeps an airplane aloft. The ancients were able to figure out how to construct and operate sailing ships without precise rules for this principle. Looking to the Heavens and the Earth The ancients are known perhaps best for their astronomy, which continues to influence us heavily today. They regularly observed the heavens, which were believed to be a divine realm with the Earth at its center. It was certainly obvious to everyone that the sun, moon, and stars moved across the heaven in a regular pattern, and its unclear whether any documented thinker of the ancient world thought to question this geocentric viewpoint. Regardless, humans began identifying constellations in the heavens and used these signs of the Zodiac to define calendars and seasons. Mathematics developed first in the Middle East, though the precise origins vary depending upon which historian one talks to. It is almost certain that the origin of mathematics was for simple recordkeeping in commerce and government. Egypt made profound progress in the development of basic geometry, because of the need to clearly define farming territory following the annual flooding of the Nile. Geometry quickly found applications in astronomy, as well. Natural Philosophy in Ancient Greece As the Greek civilization arose, however, there came finally enough stability - despite the fact that there still frequent wars - for there to arise an intellectual aristocracy, an intelligentsia, that was able to devote itself to the systematic study of these matters. Euclid and Pythagoras are just a couple of the names that resonate through the ages in the development of mathematics from this period. In the physical sciences, there were also developments. Leucippus (5th century B.C.E.) refused to accept the ancient supernatural explanations of nature and proclaimed categorically that every event had a natural cause. His student, Democritus, went on to continue this concept. The two of them were proponents of a concept that all matter is comprised of tiny particles which were so small that they could not be broken up. These particles were called atoms, from a Greek word for indivisible. It would be two millennia before the atomistic views gained support and even longer before there was evidence to support the speculation. The Natural Philosophy of Aristotle While his mentor Plato (and  his  mentor, Socrates) were far more concerned with moral philosophy, Aristotles (384 - 322 B.C.E.) philosophy had more secular foundations. He promoted the concept that observation of physical phenomena could ultimately lead to the discovery of natural laws governing those phenomena, though unlike Leucippus and Democritus, Aristotle believed that these natural laws were, ultimately, divine in nature. His was a natural philosophy, an observational science based on reason but without experimentation. He has rightly been criticized for a lack of rigor (if not outright carelessness) in his observations. For one egregious example, he states that men have more teeth than women which is certainly not true. Still, it was a step in the right direction. The Motions of Objects One of Aristotles interests was the motion of objects: Why does a rock fall while smoke rises?Why does water flow downward while flames dance into the air?Why do the planets move across the sky? He explained this by saying that all matter is composed of five elements: FireEarthAirWaterAether (divine substance of the heavens) The four elements of this world interchange and relate to each other, while Aether was an entirely different type of substance. These worldly elements each had natural realms. For example, we exist where the Earth realm (the ground beneath our feet) meets the Air realm (the air all around us and up as high as we can see). The natural state of objects, to Aristotle, was at rest, in a location that was in balance with the elements of which they were composed. The motion of objects, therefore, was an attempt by the object to reach its natural state. A rock falls because the Earth realm is down. Water flows downward because its natural realm is beneath the Earth realm. Smoke rises because it is comprised of both Air and Fire, thus it tries to reach the high Fire realm, which is also why flames extend upward. There was no attempt by Aristotle to mathematically describe the reality that he observed. Though he formalized Logic, he considered mathematics and the natural world to be fundamentally unrelated. Mathematics was, in his view, concerned with unchanging objects that lacked reality, while his natural philosophy focused on changing objects with a reality of their own. More Natural Philosophy In addition to this work on the impetus, or motion, of objects, Aristotle did extensive studies in other areas: created a classification system, dividing animals with similar characteristics into genera.studied, in his work Meteorology, the nature not only of weather patterns but also geology and natural history.formalized the mathematical system called Logic.extensive philosophical work on the nature of mans relation to the divine, as well as ethical considerations Aristotles work was rediscovered by scholars in the Middle Ages and he was proclaimed the greatest thinker of the ancient world. His views became the philosophical foundation of the Catholic Church (in cases where it didnt directly contradict the Bible) and in centuries to come observations that did not conform to Aristotle were denounced as a heretic. It is one of the greatest ironies that such a proponent of observational science would be used to inhibit such work in the future. Archimedes of Syracuse Archimedes (287 - 212 B.C.E.) is best known for the classic story of how he discovered the principles of density and buoyancy while taking a bath, immediately causing him to run through the streets of Syracuse naked screaming Eureka! (which roughly translates to I have found it!). In addition, he is known for many other significant feats: outlined the mathematical principles of the lever, one of the oldest machinescreated elaborate pulley systems, reputedly having been able to move a full-size ship by pulling on a single ropedefined the concept of the center of gravitycreated the field of statics, using Greek geometry to find equilibrium states for objects that would be taxing for modern physicistsreputed to have built many inventions, including a water screw for irrigation and war machines that helped Syracuse against Rome in the First Punic War. He is attributed by some with inventing the odometer during this time, though that has not been proven. Perhaps Archimedes greatest achievement, however, was to reconcile Aristotles great error of separating mathematics and nature. As the first mathematical physicist, he showed that detailed mathematics could be applied with creativity and imagination for both theoretical and practical results. Hipparchus Hipparchus (190 - 120 B.C.E.) was born in Turkey, though he was a Greek. He is considered by many to be the greatest observational astronomer of ancient Greece. With trigonometric tables that he developed, he applied geometry rigorously to the study of astronomy and was able to predict solar eclipses. He also studied the motion of the sun and moon, calculating with greater precision than any before him their distance, size, and parallax. To aid him in this work, he improved many of the tools used in naked-eye observations of the time. The mathematics used indicates that Hipparchus may have studied Babylonian mathematics and been responsible for bringing some of that knowledge to Greece. Hipparchus is reputed to have written fourteen books, but the only direct work that remains was a commentary on a popular astronomical poem. Stories tell of Hipparchus having calculated the circumference of the Earth, but this is in some dispute. Ptolemy The last great astronomer of the ancient world was Claudius Ptolemaeus (known as Ptolemy to posterity). In the second century C.E., he wrote a summary of ancient astronomy (borrowed heavily from Hipparchus - this is our main source for knowledge of Hipparchus) which came to be known throughout Arabia as  Almagest  (the greatest). He formally outlined the geocentric model of the universe, describing a series of concentric circles and spheres upon which other planets moved. The combinations had to be exceedingly complicated to account for the observed motions, but his work was adequate enough that for fourteen centuries it was seen as the comprehensive statement on heavenly motion. With the fall of Rome, however, the stability that supports such innovation died out in the European world. Much of the knowledge obtained by the ancient world was lost during the Dark Ages. For example, of the 150 reputed Aristotelian works, only 30 exist today, and some of those are little more than lecture notes. In that age, the discovery of knowledge would lie to the East: to China and the Middle East.

How Social Security Numbers Are Assigned

How Social Security Numbers Are Assigned The nine-digit Social Security Number (SSN) is composed of three parts: The first set of three digits is called the Area NumberThe second set of two digits is called the Group NumberThe final set of four digits is the Serial Number Area Number The Area Number is assigned by the geographical region. Prior to 1972, cards were issued in local Social Security offices around the country and the Area Number represented the State in which the card was issued. This did not necessarily have to be the State where the applicant lived since a person could apply for their card in any Social Security office. Since 1972, when SSA began assigning SSNs and issuing cards centrally from Baltimore, the area number assigned has been based on the ZIP code in the mailing address provided on the application. The applicants mailing address does not have to be the same place as their residence. Thus, the Area Number does not necessarily represent the State of residence of the applicant, either prior to 1972 or since. Generally, numbers were assigned beginning in the northeast and moving westward. So people on the east coast have the lowest numbers and those on the west coast have the highest numbers. Group Number Within each area, the group numbers (middle two digits) range from 01 to 99 but are not assigned in consecutive order. For administrative reasons, group numbers issued first consist of the ODD numbers from 01 through 09 and then EVEN numbers from 10 through 98, within each area number allocated to a State. After all numbers in group 98 of a particular area have been issued, the EVEN Groups 02 through 08 are used, followed by ODD Groups 11 through 99. These numbers do not really provide any clues for genealogy purposes. Group numbers are assigned as follows: First: ODD - 01, 03, 05, 07, 09Second: EVEN - 10 to 98Third: EVEN - 02, 04, 06, 08Fourth: ODD - 11 to 99 Serial Number Within each group, the serial numbers (last four (4) digits) run consecutively from 0001 through 9999. These also have no bearing on genealogy research.

Critical Infrastructure Protection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical Infrastructure Protection - Essay Example c. Responsibilities-This particular unit performs various responsibilities pertaining to cross sector leadership and overarching leadership. The unit is also responsible for addressing all those broad complexities in relation to the federal system of the government (GAO, 2011; Homeland Security, 2009). 2. Explain what Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) initiatives are, what are protected, and the methods used to protect our assets CIP is referred to as a concept which signifies the responses that are made to tackle serious incidents involving the critical infrastructure in a particular region. In the concerned article of Government Accountability Office (GAO), CIP initiatives are: all round cyber security guidance in seven most vital sectors i.e. material, nuclear reactors, banking and finance, health care, information technology, water and solid wastes. The broad initiatives being rendered by CIP are specifically meant for protecting the above mentioned broad sectors. The meth ods used for protecting the assets included unique operations that mainly consisted of risk alterations (GAO, 2011; Homeland Security, 2009). 3. ... critical infrastructure. In relation to maintenance of critical infrastructure, the IS professionals need to consider the aspects of cyber security to a very large extent. Ensuring cyber security requirement of high level of technical knowhow inculcates accelerated level of critical thinking for analyzing the broad aspects of cyber security. The online atmosphere also consists of numerous amounts of hackers and malicious users who perform different illicit and unauthenticated activities in the web. They are also responsible for misinterpretation of facts and figures and gathers authenticated and restrictive information for the sole purpose of misuse. IS professional need to be well aware of such entities (GAO, 2011; Homeland Security, 2009). 4. Evaluate the Effectiveness of IS Professionals In Regard To Protecting the U.S.’S Critical Infrastructure The contributions of IS professionals in relation to protection of U.S.’s critical infrastructure is ideal in the context o f infrastructural development. The IS professional have greatly utilized the broad aspects of cyber security guidance in an in depth manner. This concept has been utilized not only in national but also in the international context, which is one of the broadest contributions that is served from the part of the IS professionals. In addition, they are also serving various purposes pertaining to the factors associated with improving the current Federal system in the U.S. All the activities reflecting from the parts of IS professionals aimed at a particular objective i.e. diversification of the infrastructural facilities and improving it thereby. The IS professionals are also responsible for improving the federal information systems, which is being carried out in alliance with National

Recent Discoveries in Egypt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6250 words

Recent Discoveries in Egypt - Essay Example The exact dates of Nefertiti’s life are open to debate, but she was definitely a significant part of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt, and the dates of her six daughters are estimated to range between the years of 1348-1339 B.C. Part of the difficulty ascertaining her lifetime is related to the possibility that she bore a different name prior to her marriage to Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, who himself changed his name to Akhenaten when he began to worship Aten in 1346. There is little doubt that Nefertiti wielded unprecedented influence for a queen, at some point being named co-regent, and the images depicting her beside her husband show her of similar size as his portrayal†¦ implying an almost equal status. Although Nefertiti bore Akhenaten six daughters, it was a minor wife named Kiya who bore him his son and future heir, Tutankhaten (meaning â€Å"the Living Image of the Aten†) who was later to become the pharaoh Tutankhamun. Kiya promptly disappeared from all records, possib ly due to Nefertiti feeling threatened, although Nefertiti herself would disappear from any historical reference by the year 1336. Speculation begins here, for this is the same year that Smenkhkare became co-ruler with Akhenaten, actually surviving him by two years. Many suspicions abound Smenkhkare, whose feminine image closely resembled depictions of Nefetiti, and whose regal name, Nefernefruaten, is so similar to Nefertiti that some theories conclude that it is simply Nefertiti by a different name as she continued to rise in power.

The Handmaids Tale - short summary Essay Example for Free

The Handmaids Tale short summary Essay The novel The Handmaids Tale written by Margret Atwood is about how the government chose to control the way the community was run and control the lives of men and women. The novel tells the story from the perspective of a middle-aged woman named Offred who questions societys accepted beliefs and conventions. Offred is a handmaid in the Republic of Gilead who is constantly questioning the government beliefs and rules. Her character pushes the limits set out by the government. This is thoroughly illustrated through her defiance of against the social conventions, her methods of challenging them and the final outcome of her challenge. Firstly, Offred challenges many laws within The Handmaids Tale including socializing with the commander and Nick, and being in the sitting room. Handmaids are a class who are not to socialize with the commander; Offred explains, Its forbidden for us to be alone with the commanders (Atwood 128). She spends a large amount of time with the commander although she is well aware of the laws within the community. Being a handmaid Offred is not allowed into the sitting room. One night she wanders down to the sitting room to try something new, she is there to be independent; she likes to be on her own. I like this. I am doing something, on my own. The active Tense. Tensed. What I would like to steal is a knife from the kitchen, but Im not ready for that (Atwood 92). At this point Nick interrupts her. Nick and Offred are not allowed to associate with each other. I freeze, white was a mistake. Im snow in moonlight, even in the dark (Atwood 92). She breaks laws, knows what she is doing to be wrong but her need to test the laws convinces her to proceed. Secondly, the novel indicates that Offred breaks many laws by spending time alone with the commanders and her presence in the sitting room with Nick. Offred visits with the commander and plays scrabble with him. Id like you to play a game of Scrabble with me. he says (Atwood 130). In playing scrabble she breaks the law against handmaids spending independent time with commanders without the supervision of the wife. One night she heads down into the sitting room to do something rebellious. She has the thought of stealing. In the wood at midnight, magic flower. A withered daffodil with daffodils will soon be thrown out (Atwood 92). Shortly after Nick interrupts her. He puts his hand on my arm, pulls me against him, his mouth on mine, what else comes from such denial? Without a word. Both of us shaking, how Id like to. In Serenas parlour, with the direct flowers on the Chinese carpet, his thin body My hand goes down I could unbutton, and then. But its too dangerous (Atwood 92) Although she is cautious about her choices she still breaks the laws, she knows what she is doing and she still continues. Finally, while ignoring the laws, Offred gains many things including the need for and the suffering, excitement, laughter and love of a strong friendship. After her interaction with Nick she becomes confused and anxious You can wet the rim of a glass. This is what I feel like: this sound of glass. I feel like the word shatter. I want to be with someone (Atwood 97). She is afraid. She does not know what to think about this passion she is having. But this is wrong; nobody dies from lack of sex. Its lack of love we die from. There is nobody her I can love, all the people I could love are dead or elsewhere. Who knows where they are or what their names are now? They might as well be nowhere, as I am for them. (Atwood 97) The friendship she gains with the commander affects her in powerful ways, she begins to feel differently about herself. I am thirty-three years old. I have brown hair. I stand five seven without shoes. I have trouble remembering what I used to look like. I have viable ovaries. I have one more chance Circumstances have altered (Atwood 135). It is shown that her actions cause her confusion and she is in a state where she had begun to have hope. In conclusion, the author Margret Atwood follows the pattern of fictional novels with The Handmaids Tale by having the main character, Offred, constantly questioning the social beliefs and conventions in the Republic of Gilead. Offreds want for a better life is illustrated through her challenges against the social standards, her methods of testing them and the final outcome of her defiance. Sarah Driscoll January 17, 2005 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Margaret Atwood section.

Hound Of The Baskervilles Essay -- essays research papers

SUMMARY Entering the office and showing Holmes and Watson an 18th century manuscript, Dr. James Mortimer tells the myth of Hugo Baskerville. Hugo captured and imprisoned a young country girl at his estate in Devonshire. He then became the victim of a hound of hell as he chased her along the lonesome moors late one night. Ever since that day, James Mortimer reports, the Baskerville family has been haunted by a mysterious and supernatural black hound. The recent death of Sir Charles Baskerville has brought back suspicions and fears. The next of kin, Holmes and Watson find out, has arrived in London to take up his post at Baskerville Hall, but he has already been intimidated by an anonymous warning note and the theft of a shoe. The duo quickly discovers that Sir Henry Baskerville is being followed in London by a mysterious bearded stranger, and they speculate as to whether the mystery man is a friend or an enemy. Holmes, however, says he is too busy in London to accompany Mortimer and Sir Henry to Devonshire to investigate the bottom of the case, so he sends Dr. Watson to be his eyes and ears, asking him to report back regularly. Arriving in Devonshire, Watson discovers a state of emergency, with armed guards on the lookout for an escaped prisoner wandering the moors. He meets potential suspects in Mr. Barrymore and Mrs. Barrymore, Mr. Jack Stapleton and his sister Beryl, Baskerville neighbours. A series of mysteries happen: Barrymore is caught lurking around the mansion at ni...

The Rise of Hitler

The Nazi party first started after WWI when a group of unemployed German men. They were known as â€Å"The German Workers Party (GWP). † Adolf Hitler joined the group in 1919 and quick rose to a high ranking leader. His rise to the top of the GWP was due to his powerful speeches. Despite the ability of his speaking he often used it to promote national pride, militarism, and a racially â€Å"pure† Germany. After Hitler’s rise to leadership he changed the name to â€Å"The National Socialist German Workers’ which was referred to as â€Å"The Nazi Party†.Hitler tried to overthrow the government with the Nazi Party, but had no success. This leads up to his election as chancellor of Germany. While incarcerated, Hitler wrote a book called Mein Kampf, which established a foundation for the beliefs of the Nazi party. After its publication, Hitler could truly grow an army of supporters. According to the narrator’s of â€Å"World at War† After Hitler’s release he quickly pursued a political campaign for chancellor.This provided him with a chance to persuade more of the German public that they needed to condemn all Jews. He brought food and water to the poor, which help with the growth of The Nazi party and his supporters. According the text in â€Å"A Teachers Guide to The Holocaust† Hitler also began create subgroups for specific Germans such as, children, women, doctor’s, etc. Hitler’s attempt was also short lived because they lost the election.Years later after gaining more supports the Nazi Party prevailed and took over Germany due to Hindenburg’s new Government. This allowed Hitler to carry out his plan to rid the world of all Jewish people. In 1938 Germany started to ban Jews from most places. In 1942 the Germans decided it was time to take action start with their plan called â€Å"the final solution† which leads to the founding of concentration camps and the holocaust. The Germans quickly formed alliances with Italy, USSR, and Japan.Despite the alliance Japan created more problems for the Nazi party by attacking America without a declaration of war. After the attacks on Pearl Harbor America had officially joined the war against the Germans in WW2. America’s involvement created the Unfortunately Hitler’s ambition drove him to commit treason against Russia, which was Germany’s biggest ally at the time. Despite the Germany advantage of surprise they could not defeat the Soviets. America capitalized on Germany’s mistake by forming a brief alliance with Russia.

Home Background Factors Related to Academic Success

Subject: what are the school and the home background factors that are related to academic success? Academic success can be defined as excellence in all academic disciplines in class as well as extracurricular activities. It includes excellence in sporting, behavior, confidence, communication skills, assertiveness, arts, culture†¦ But to fulfill academic success, different factors must be achieved. What are these factors? From birth to age eighteen, children spend just a fraction of their lives in school.Therefore, it is not surprising that many factors outside the school environment can significantly influence students' prospects for academic success in school. That’s why home background is considered one of the important factors related to academic success. First, parents’ beliefs, expectations and attitudes about education have a profound impact on student’s conceptions of the significance of education in their lives. What parents think about the importanc e of doing well in school is often mirrored in student results.In other words, if the parents were educated they know the consequences of education in the life; that’s why they encourage their children to study. A study by Metropolitan Life Insurance Company found that nearly all students (98%) who earned A’s and B’s on their report cards reported that their parents encouraged them to do well in school. Among students who earned mostly C’s said they received little parental encouragement.Second, why children succeed or fail in school is related to the mother’s level of education which is one of the most important factors influencing children’s reading levels and other school achievements; therefore, quality of maternal care is one of the factors helping students to achieve academic success. Third, a relatively large family appeared to be not impediment to the educational achievements of middle-class children, but for those with less privileg ed home circumstances a small family was an essential ingredient for academic success.In small families, parents have more resources to devote to their children and can more easily find time to spend with them and to encourage them. When the family have lots of children, finding time to read to the child, to encourage him to complete his homework or to participate in school functions, become more difficult. Forth, many children grow up in homes with an abundance of fiscal and material resources; but not all do.Poverty takes a toll on students’ performance. Poor children are twice as likely as their more affluent counterparts to repeat a grade; to be suspended, expelled, or drop out of high school. In sum, children from more economically affluent home circumstances have a leg up in many areas in life, including education. Finally, for most students, school creates an important community setting a safe place where time structure and friends are present.Families and neighborhood s complete a student’s community and consciously connecting schools, families and neighborhoods offer significant advantages for students, particularly those at academic risk. The broad stroke issues that can influence performance in school includes therefore parenting. Other things that may influence academic success include motivational and well-trained teachers. Teachers can make students either interested or not in the material to be learned.For example, in this digital age, teachers can use computers to individualize learning so that lessons can cater to the different skill levels of each child. Gone are the days of simple worksheets and book work; teachers should encourage their students somehow to have excellent results. In addition, teachers should be well-organized and patient: they should repeat lessons and answer all students’ questions. Moreover, teachers should find interactive learning activities which can integrate into the classroom to help them present more information in a dynamic way.In conclusion, schools do not exist in a vacuum. A host of factors contribute to students’ prospects for academic success and there are many theories as to what will increase the academic success of the child. Some students come to school with all they need: stable and supportive families, adequate financial resources and good surrounding. For students who do not enjoy these advantages, teachers can help them meet outside-of-school challenges and can provide the boost they need to succeed.

Durex supports Essay Example

Durex supports Essay Example Durex supports Paper Durex supports Paper Durex is a brand of condoms under the United Kingdom Company SSL International. With Durex’s creed of Durability, Reliability, and Excellence, the company has become the number 1 condom brand in the world. With investments in marketing and innovation, Durex is recognized as a premium brand of condoms. The company has prided itself in the innovation of the condom market. Durex introduced the first modern lubricated condom in 1957, the first anatomically shaped condom in 1969, and in 1974 produced the first spermicidally lubricated condom. They have continued their innovative strategy in the creation of nons of this are resource packs for schools, healthcare sponsorships, and campaigns and newsletters advocating safe sex and AIDS awareness. The firm has also been working with several humanitarian organizations such as UNAIDS, WHO, UNICEF, and Red Cross. Durex has been supporting government public campaigns to ensure the success and effectiveness in reducing STIs and unplanned pregnancies (The Economist, 1999). One of the greatest strength of the company lies in brand longevity and loyalty. Durex has been able to establish their brand name firmly in the market, which gives them a significant advantage. Consumers are not willing to risk buying a relatively unpopular brand, given the risks involved, and will stick to known brands of condoms. However, with the growing popularity of other methods of birth control Durex has to act to make sure that they remain a competitive force in the market. 2. Worldwide, Durex condom sales account for nearly 30 percent of the total sales. One of the leading providers of condoms, Durex is sold in over 150 countries worldwide and is the market leader of condoms in nearly 40 countries (DoubleClick, 2005). The company has controlled the condom market in Britain and England before they decided to go global. Though other condom brands were present they did not pose any significant threat, and Durex was able to hold around 50 percent of the condom market in Europe. In the early 1990’s Durex had an 80% market share in Britain and 45% with their European brands (Newland, 1998). Durex’s success in different countries can be attributed to their aggressive foray into the international market with widespread advertising in 1994. Earnings increased by 15 percent annually, and worldwide condom sales increased by 3 percent. European shares grew to 50% of the market, and similar figures are present in Asian countries (Newland, 1998). Durex continues to maintain their dominance in these regions, with ongoing plans for multiple expansions. Eastern Europe has been a target of Durex with the purchase of several units in Russia the company is planning to raise stakes to 50%. Durex will also open a new factory in China, with the capability to produce over a billion condoms annually (Lundgren Mustoe, 2009). The only region that Durex has failed to dominate is the United States. Only holding 20% of the market share in that region, Durex faces tough competition from the leading American condom brand, Trojan. Trojan accounts for 70% of condom sales in the U. S. , nearly four times as large as Durex (Koerner, 2006). Durex has instead focused on other regions because of the immense difficulty in penetrating the existing market base that Trojan has in the United States. Bibliography DoubleClick. (2005). Durex Condoms Leverages DARTÂ ® for Advertisers for First Online Campaign. DoubleClick Inc. Fox, H. L. (1995). Durex Stretches Its Brief. Marketing , 14. Koerner, B. (2006, September 29). The Other Trojan War: Whats the best selling condom in America. Retrieved May 2009, from Slate: slate. com/id/2150552/ Lundgren, K. , Mustoe, H. (2009, March 9). Condom Sales in Eastern Europe to Bolster Durex Maker. Retrieved May 2009, from Bloomberg: bloomberg. com/apps/news? pid=20601085sid=alzlSKQch0c8refer=europe Newland, F. (1998). How Durexs Strength Keeps Entrants at Bay. Marketing Week , 20. The Economist. (1999). Go Forth and Dont Multiply. 62.

USS Texas (BB-35) Battleship in World War II

USS Texas (BB-35) Battleship in World War II USS Texas (BB-35) was an New York-class battleship that was commissioned into the U.S. Navy in 1914. After taking part in the American occupation of Veracruz later that year, Texas saw service in British waters during World War I. Modernized in the 1920s, the battleship was still in the fleet when the United States entered World War II following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. After performing convoy duty in the Atlantic, Texas took part in the invasion of Normandy in June 1944 and the landings in  southern France later that summer. The battleship was transferred to the Pacific in November 1944 and aided in the final campaigns against the Japanese, including the invasion of Okinawa. Retired after the war, it is presently a museum ship outside Houston, TX. Design Construction Tracing its origins to the 1908 Newport Conference, the  New York-class of battleships was the U.S. Navys fifth type of dreadnought after the South Carolina- (BB-26/27), Delaware- (BB-28/29), Florida- (BB-30/31), and Wyoming-classes (BB-32/33). Central among the conferences findings was the requirement for ever larger calibers of main guns as foreign navies had begun using 13.5 guns. Though discussions commenced regarding the armament of the Florida- and  Wyoming-class ships, their construction advanced using the standard 12 guns. Complicating the debate was the fact that no U.S. dreadnought had entered service and designs were based on theory, war games, and experience with pre-dreadnought ships. In 1909, the General Board pushed forward designs for a battleship mounting 14 guns. A year later, the Bureau of Ordnance successfully tested a new gun of this size and Congress authorized the building of two ships. Shortly before construction began, the U.S. Senate Naval Affairs Committee attempted to have the size of the ships reduced as part of an attempt to cut the budget. These efforts were thwarted by Secretary of the Navy George von Lengerke Meyer and both battleships moved forward as originally designed. Named USS  New York  (BB-34) and USS  Texas  (BB-35), the new ships mounted ten 14 guns in five twin turrets. These were situated with two forward and two aft in superfiring arrangements while the fifth turret was placed amidships. The secondary battery consisted of twenty-one 5 guns and four 21 torpedo tubes. The tubes were situated with two in the bow and two in the stern. No anti-aircraft guns were included in the initial design, but the rise of naval aviation saw the addition two 3 guns in 1916. USS Texas (BB-35) during sea trials, 1913.   U.S. Navy Propulsion for the  New York-class ships came from fourteen Babcock Wilcox coal-fired boilers powering dual-acting, vertical triple expansion steam engines. These turned two propellers and gave the vessels a speed of 21 knots.  The New York-class was the last class of battleships designed for the US Navy to utilize coal for fuel. Protection for the ships came from a 12 main armor belt with 6.5 covering the vessels casemates.   Construction of Texas was assigned to the Newport News Shipbuilding Company after the yard submitted a bid of $5,830,000 (exclusive of armament and armor). Work began on April 17, 1911, five months before New York was laid down in Brooklyn. Moving forward over the next thirteen months, the battleship entered the water on May 18, 1912, with Claudia Lyon, daughter of Colonel Cecil Lyon of Texas, serving as sponsor. Twenty-two months later, Texas entered service on March 12, 1914,  with Captain Albert W. Grant in command.  Commissioned a month earlier than New York, some initial confusion arose regarding the name of the class. USS Texas (BB-35) Nation:  United StatesType:  BattleshipShipyard:  Newport News ShipbuildingLaid Down:  April 17, 1911Launched:  May 18, 1912Commissioned:  March 12, 1914Fate:  Museum ship  Specifications (as built)Displacement:  27,000  tonsLength:  573  ft.Beam:  95.3  ft.Draft:  27  ft., 10.5 in.Propulsion:  14  Babcock and Wilcox  coal-fired boilers  with oil spray, triple expansion steam engines turning two propellersSpeed:  21  knotsComplement:  1,042  menArmament (as built)10  Ãƒâ€"  14-inch/45  caliber guns21 Ãâ€"  5/51 caliber guns4 Ãâ€" 21  torpedo tubes Early Service Departing Norfolk, Texas steamed for New York where its fire control equipment was installed. In May, the new battleship moved south to support operations during the American occupation of Veracruz. This occurred despite the fact that the battleship had not conducted a shakedown cruise and post-shakedown repair cycle. Remaining in Mexican waters for two months as part of Rear Admiral Frank F. Fletchers squadron, Texas briefly returned to New York in August before commencing routine operations with the Atlantic Fleet. In October, the battleship again arrived off the Mexican coast and briefly served as station ship at Tuxpan before proceeding to Galveston, TX where it received a set of silver from Texas Governor Oscar Colquitt. After a period in the yard at New York around the turn of the year, Texas rejoined the Atlantic Fleet. On May 25, the battleship, along with USS Louisiana (BB-19) and USS Michigan (BB-27), rendered aid to the stricken Holland-America liner Ryndam which had been rammed by another vessel. Through 1916, Texas moved through a routine training cycle before receiving two 3 anti-aircraft guns as well as directors and rangefinders for its main battery. World War I In the York River when the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Texas remained in the Chesapeake until August conducting exercises and working to train Naval Armed Guard gun crews for service about merchant vessels. After an overhaul at New York, the battleship moved up Long Island Sound and on the night of September 27 ran hard aground on Block Island. The accident was the result of Captain Victor Blue and his navigator turning too soon due to confusion regarding shore lights and the location of the channel through the mine field at the east end of Long Island Sound. USS Texas (BB-35) at Hampton Roads, VA, 1917.   U.S. Navy Pulled free three days later, Texas returned to New York for repairs. As a result, it was unable to sail in November with Rear Admiral Hugh Rodmans Battleship Division 9 which departed to reinforce Admiral Sir David Beattys British Grand Fleet at Scapa Flow. Despite the accident, Blue retained command of Texas and, due to connections to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, avoided a court-martial over the incident. Finally crossing the Atlantic in January 1918, Texas reinforced Rodmans force which was operating as the 6th Battle Squadron. While abroad, the battleship largely aided in protecting convoys in the North Sea.  On April 24, 1918, Texas sortied when the German High Seas Fleet was spotted moving towards Norway. Though the enemy was sighted, they could not be brought to battle. With the end of the conflict in November, Texas joined the fleet in escorting the High Seas Fleet into internment at Scapa Flow. The following month, the American battleship steamed south to escort President Woodrow Wilson, aboard the liner SS George Washington, into Brest, France as he traveled to the peace conference at Versailles. Interwar Years  Ã‚  Ã‚   Returning to home waters, Texas resumed peacetime operations with the Atlantic Fleet. On March 10, 1919, Lieutenant Edward McDonnell became the first man to fly an aircraft off an American battleship when he launched his Sopwith Camel from one of Texas turrets. Later that year, the battleships commander, Captain Nathan C. Twining, employed aircraft to spot for the vessels main battery.  Findings from these efforts supported the theory that air spotting was far superior to shipboard spotting and led to floatplanes being placed aboard American battleships and cruisers. In May, Texas acted a plane guard for a group of US Navy Curtiss NC aircraft that were attempting a trans-Atlantic flight. That July, Texas transferred to the Pacific to begin a five-year assignment with the Pacific Fleet.  Returning to the Atlantic in 1924, the battleship entered Norfolk Navy Yard the following year for a major modernization. This saw the replacement of the ships cage masts with tripod masts, installation of new oil-fired Bureau Express boilers, additions to the anti-aircraft armament, and placing of new fire control equipment. USS Texas (BB-35) undergoing modernization at Norfolk Navy Yard, 1926. National Archives and Records Administration Completed in November 1926, Texas was named flagship of the U.S. Fleet and commenced operations along the East Coast. In 1928, the battleship transported President Calvin Coolidge to Panama for the Pan-American Conference and then proceeded into the Pacific for maneuvers off Hawaii.  Following an overhaul at New York in 1929, Texas spent the next seven years moving through routine deployments in the Atlantic and Pacific.   Made flagship of the Training Detachment in 1937, it held this role for a year until becoming flagship of the Atlantic Squadron. During this period, much Texas operations centered on training activities including serving as a platform for midshipmen cruises for the U.S. Naval Academy. In December 1938, the battleship entered the yard for installation of the experimental RCA CXZ radar system. With the beginning of World War II in Europe, Texas received an assignment to the Neutrality Patrol to aid in safeguarding the western sea lanes from German submarines.  It then began escorting convoys of Lend-Lease material to the Allied nations. Made flagship of Admiral Ernest J. Kings Atlantic Fleet in February 1941, Texas saw its radar systems upgraded to the new RCA CXAM-1 system later that year.  Ã‚   World War II At Casco Bay, ME on December 7 when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor,  Texas  remained in the North Atlantic until March when it entered the yard. While there, its secondary armament was reduced while additional anti-aircraft guns were installed.  Returning to active duty, the battleship resumed convoy escort duty until the fall of 1942. On November 8, Texas  arrived off Port Lyautey, Morocco where it provided fire support for Allied forces during the Operation Torch landings. It remained in action until November 11 and then returned to the United States.  Reassigned to convoy duty,  Texas  continued in this role until April 1944.   Remaining in British waters, Texas  commenced training to support the planned invasion of Normandy.  Sailing on June 3, the battleship pummeled targets around Omaha Beach and Pointe du Hoc three days later.  Providing intense naval gunfire support to Allied troops hitting the beaches,  Texas fired on enemy positions throughout the day. The battleship remained off the Norman coast until June 18 with its only departure a short run to Plymouth to rearm. USS Texas (BB-35) at sea, December 1942. National Archives and Records Administration Later that month, on June 25,  Texas, USS  Arkansas  (BB-33), and USS  Nevada  (BB-36) attacked German positions around Cherbourg. In exchanging fire with enemy batteries,  Texas sustained a shell hit which caused eleven casualties. Following repairs, at Plymouth the battleship began training for the invasion of southern France. After shifting to the Mediterranean in July,  Texas  approached the French coast on August 15. Providing fire support for the Operation Dragoon landings, the battleship struck targets until Allied troops advanced beyond range of its guns. Withdrawing on August 17,  Texas  sailed for Palermo before later departing for New York. Arriving in mid-September, the battleship entered the yard for a brief overhaul.  Ordered to the Pacific,  Texas sailed in November and touched in California before reaching Pearl Harbor the following month.  Pressing on to Ulithi, the battleship joined Allied forces and took part in the Battle of Iwo Jima in February 1945. Leaving Iwo Jima on March 7,  Texas  returned to Ulithi to prepare for the invasion of Okinawa. Attacking Okinawa on March 26, the battleship pounded targets for six days before the landings on April 1.  Once the troops were ashore,  Texas stayed in the area until mid-May providing fire support. Final Actions Retiring to the Philippines,  Texas  was there when the war ended  on August 15.  Returning to Okinawa, it remained there into September before embarking American troops for home as part of Operation Magic Carpet. Continuing in this mission through December,  Texas then sailed for Norfolk to prepare for deactivation. Taken to Baltimore, the battleship entered reserve status on June 18, 1946. The following year, the Texas Legislature created the Battleship Texas  Commission with the goal of preserving the ship as a museum. Raising the necessary funds, the Commission had  Texas  towed to the Houston Ship Channel near the San Jacinto Monument. Made flagship of the Texas Navy, the battleship remains open as a museum ship.  Texas was formally decommissioned on April 21, 1948.

American muscle cars (supercharged are better than turbocharged) Thesis

American muscle cars (supercharged are better than turbocharged) - Thesis Example Evolution of American muscle cars began during the 1960s. According to Leffingwell and Holmstrom (2006), the development of V-8 engine technology played a substantial role in materializing the muscle car. The millions of baby boomers who entered the market during the middle of the 20th century were attracted toward V-8 engine. The American automobile customers behaved according as there curiosity and demand for the turbocharging and supercharging technologies of that time. They were not interested to create physical stereotypes for the car body. This is the reason behind the fact that diverse models of muscle cars were made available during the 1970s and 1980s. In this way, both the agile Camaro and powerful Roadrunner were accepted by the contemporary younger generations as muscle cars (Mueller, 2011). Contextually, an informative socio-technological analysis shows that muscle cars were no mere show items. Leffingwell and Holmstrom (2006) have explored the characteristics of social acceptance of the powerful turbocharged and supercharged engine techniques that culminated at the reinvention of automobile design and use with global implications. Although the different companies like Ford, General Motors, Chevrolet, etc. launched there own product categories and product line, the main objective of achieving more and more engine power remained in tact throughout the industry policy makers. And people were so obsessed with the different features of these cars that the companies continued to produce newer editions of the older models with certain new features. For example, some customers would love the sound of a turbocharged engine as it accelerated; while some other customers wished to have curves on the bonnet of the car they bought †¦ and so on! (Gunnell, 2005; McClurg, 2005). However, when the petroleum industry became turbulent due to certain international